In Early Islamic Art There Was a Ban Against Graven Images

Abstention of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art

Aniconism is the abstention of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art. Islamic aniconism stems in function from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the belief that the creation of living forms is God'south prerogative. Although the Quran does not explicitly prohibit visual representation of any living being, information technology uses the word musawwir (maker of forms, artist) every bit an epithet of God. The corpus of hadith (sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad) contains more explicit prohibitions of images of living beings, challenging painters to "breathe life" into their images and threatening them with punishment on the Day of Judgment.^{[1] [2]} Muslims have interpreted these prohibitions in dissimilar ways in dissimilar times and places. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized past the absence of figures and extensive use of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns.

Nonetheless, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, with his face curtained) and other religious figures are found in some manuscripts from lands to the eastward of Anatolia, such as Persia and India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, but many Muslims regard such images equally forbidden.^[1] In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of human being and brute forms historically flourished in near all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a diversity of decorative figural designs. In that location were episodes of iconoclastic destruction of figurative fine art, such equally the decree by the Umayyad caliph Yazid 2 in 721 CE ordering the destruction of all representational images in his realm.^{[2] [3]} A number of historians have seen an Islamic influence on the Byzantine iconoclastic move of the 8th century, though others regard this is as a legend that arose in afterwards times in the Byzantine empire.^[four]

Theological views [edit]

The Quran, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of homo figures; it just condemns idolatry.^{[5] [6]} Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the hadith, amongst a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter role of the menstruum when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they need to be interpreted in lodge to be applied in any general style.

Sunni exegetes of tafsir, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and using any representation of living beings. There are variations between religious madhhab (schools) and marked differences between different branches of Islam. Aniconism is common amongst fundamentalist Sunni sects such as Salafis and Wahhabis (which are too oft iconoclastic), and less prevalent among liberal movements inside Islam. Shia and mystical orders also take less stringent views on aniconism. On the individual level, whether or not specific Muslims believe in aniconism may depend on how much credence is given to hadith, and how liberal or strict they are in personal exercise.

Aniconism in Islam non only deals with the fabric prototype, but touches upon mental representations equally well. It is a problematic upshot, discussed by early theologians, equally to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to do so. God is usually represented by immaterial attributes, such equally "holy" or "merciful", commonly known from His "Ninety-nine beautiful names". Muhammad's physical advent, however, is handsomely described, peculiarly in the traditions on his life and deeds recorded in the biographies known as Sirah Rasul Allah. Of no less involvement is the validity of sightings of holy personages fabricated during dreams.

Titus Burckhardt sums up the role of aniconism in Islamic aesthetics every bit follows:

The absence of icons in Islam has not but a negative simply a positive role. By excluding all anthropomorphic images, at least within the religious realm, Islamic fine art aids man to be entirely himself. Instead of projecting his soul outside himself, he can remain in his ontological centre where he is both the viceregent (khalîfa) and slave ('abd) of God. Islamic art as a whole aims at creating an ambience which helps man to realize his primordial dignity; it therefore avoids everything that could be an 'idol', even in a relative and provisional manner. Nothing must stand between man and the invisible presence of God. Thus Islamic art creates a void; it eliminates in fact all the turmoil and passionate suggestions of the world, and in their stead creates an social club that expresses equilibrium, serenity and peace.^[7]

In practice [edit]

Religious cadre [edit]

In exercise, the core of normative faith in Islam is consistently aniconic. Spaces such as the mosque and objects similar the Quran are devoid of figurative images. Other spheres of religion, for example mysticism, popular piety, or individual devotion exhibit meaning variability in this regard. Aniconism in secular contexts is fifty-fifty more variable and in that location are many examples of figural representation in secular art throughout history. More often than not speaking, aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in modern times to specific religious contexts. In the past, it was enforced simply in some times and places.^[8]

Past [edit]

The representation of living beings in Islamic fine art is not just a mod phenomenon and examples are institute from the earliest periods of Islamic history. Frescos and reliefs of humans and animals adorned palaces of the Umayyad era, as on the famous Mshatta Facade at present in Berlin.^{[9] [10]} The 'Abbasid Palaces at Samarra also contained figurative imagery. Ceramics, metalware, and objects in ivory, rock crystal, and other media likewise bore figural imagery in the medieval era.^[11] Figurative miniatures in books occur subsequently in well-nigh Islamic countries merely somewhat less in Standard arabic-speaking areas. The human effigy is central to the Persian miniature and other traditions such as the Ottoman miniature and Mughal painting.^{[12] [xiii]} The Farsi miniature tradition began when Persian courts were dominated by Sunnis, just connected after the Shia Safavid dynasty took power. The Safavid ruler Shah Tahmasp I of Persia began his reign as a keen patron and apprentice artist himself, but turned against painting and other forbidden activities afterwards a religious midlife crunch.^[xiv]

The Pisa Griffin, probably created in the 11th century in Al-Andalus, is the largest Islamic figurative sculpture to survive.

The abstention of idolatry is the primary business organisation of the restrictions on images, and as a upshot, the traditional form for the religious cult image, the complimentary-continuing sculpture, is extremely rare, though examples of freestanding homo sculpture do occur in Umayyad Syria and in Seljuk Islamic republic of iran.^[15] The Pisa Griffin, of a mythical animate being and designed to spout water for a fountain, is the largest example, at iii anxiety tall in bronze, and probably merely survives because it was taken equally booty by the metropolis of Pisa in the Middle Ages.^[16] Like the famous lions supporting a fountain in the Alhambra, it probably came from Al-Andalus. The griffin and lions cannot easily exist regarded every bit potential idols, given their submissive position (and the lack of religions worshipping lions or griffins), and the same is truthful of small decorative figures in relief on objects in metalwork, or figures painted on Islamic pottery, both of which are relatively common.^[17] In particular hunting scenes of humans and animals were pop, and presumably regarded every bit clearly having no religious function. The figures in miniatures were, until the tardily 16th century, ever numerous in each image, small (typically only an inch or two loftier), and showing the central figures at roughly the aforementioned size every bit the attendants and servants who are usually also shown, thus deflecting potential accusations of idolatry. The books illustrated were about often the classics of Persian poetry and historical chronicles.

The hadith show some concessions for context, as with the dolls, and condemn most strongly the makers rather than the owners of images.^[18] A long tradition of prefaces to muraqqas sought to justify the creation of images without getting involved in discussions of the specific texts, using arguments such as comparing God to an artist.^[19]

Miniature painting was generally patronized past the court circle and is a private form of art; the possessor chooses whom to show a book or muraqqa (album). Simply wall-paintings with big figures were institute in early Islam, and in Safavid and later Persia, specially from the 17th century, but were e'er rare in the Arabic-speaking world. Such paintings are also mainly plant in private palaces; examples in public buildings are rare though not unknown, in Iran there are even some in mosques.

Eschewing figural representation, ornamentation in Islamic sacred architecture relies chiefly on arabesque and geometrical patterns.

Early examples of non-figural representation in Islamic sacred compages are found in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. The murals of the Dome of the Rock apply crowns and jewels to symbolize earthly rulership and "otherworldly" plants as an invocation of the Quranic clarification of heaven.^[twenty] Similarly, the murals in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, which describe an idyllic cityscape are also meant to be an evocation of paradise without figural representation.^[20]

The consequence of aniconism has posed bug in the modern earth, particularly as technologies like television developed in the 20th century. For many years, Wahhabi clerics opposed the establishment of a television service in Kingdom of saudi arabia, equally they believed it immoral to produce images of humans.^[21] The introduction of television in 1965 offended some Saudis, and one of King Faisal'southward nephews, Prince Khalid ibn Musa'id ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz,^[22] was killed in a police shootout in August 1965 later he led an assault on one of the new television stations.^[23]

Nowadays [edit]

Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized past noteworthy differences.^[24] Factors are the epoch considered, the country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the individual benefit or the dichotomy between reality and discourse.

Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) take an exceptional impact on public stance, sometimes, every bit in the case of Al Jazeera, with a global reach, across the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes^{[25] [26]} and coins, in streets and offices (e.grand. presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, al-Assad or Hezbollah'southward Nasrallah and Ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to exist institute in most Muslim countries (Saddam Hussein's are infamous^[27]), also as art schools grooming sculptors and painters. In the Egyptian countryside, it is fashionable to gloat and advertise the returning of pilgrims from Mecca on the walls of their houses.

The Taliban motion in Afghanistan banned photography and destroyed non-Muslim artifacts, especially carvings and statues such equally the Buddhas of Bamiyan, more often than not tolerated by other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or shirk. However, sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography^[28]).

For Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Islamic republic of iran, portraits of Muhammad and of Ali, printed on pieces of cloth or woven into carpets, are called temsal ("likenesses") and tin be bought around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself.^[29] In Pakistan, India and Bangladesh portraits of Ali can be found on notoriously ornate trucks,^[30] buses and rickshaws.^[31] Reverse to the Sunni tradition, a photographic motion picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shiite tombs.^{[32] [33]} A curiosity in Iran is an Orientalist photography supposed to stand for Muhammad as a young boy.^[34] The One thousand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Republic of iraq has given a fatwā declaring the delineation of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if information technology is made with the utmost respect.^[35]

Circumvention methods [edit]

Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent peculiarly sensitive figures such as Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a fiery halo hiding his confront, head, or whole body, and from about 1500 is often shown with a veiled face.^[36] Members of his immediate family and other prophets may be treated in the same way. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts tin can have their face covered past a veil or all humans have a stroke drawn over their neck, symbolizing the severing of the soul, and clarifying the fact that information technology is non something alive and imbued with a soul that is depicted: a purposeful flaw to make what is depicted impossible to alive in reality (equally just impossible in reality is still often frowned upon or banned, such as representations of comic volume characters or unicorns, although exceptions practice exist). Few portraits were attempted, and the power to create recognizable portraits was rare in Islamic art until the Mughal tradition began in the late 15th century, although in both Mughal India and Ottoman Turkey portraits of the ruler so became very popular in court circles.^[37]

Islamic calligraphy has also displayed figurative themes. Examples of this are  anthropomorphic and zoomorphic calligrams.^[38] Islamic calligraphy forms evolved, peculiarly in the Ottoman period, to fulfill a function similar to figurative art.^[39] When on paper, Islamic calligraphy is often seen with elaborate frames of Ottoman illumination.^[39] Examples of Islamic calligraphy using this technique include the name of Muhammad, the Hilya (a tablet that embodies the description of Muhammad'south physical appearance), multiple names of God in Islam, and the tughra (a calligraphic version of the name of an Ottoman sultan).^{[40] [41]}

Causes [edit]

Hadith and exegesis examples [edit]

During its early on days, aniconism in Islam was intended as a measure out against idolatry, particularly against the statues worshipped by pagans. All hadith presented in this section are Sunni, not Shia.

Narrated Aisha:
The wife of the Prophet purchased a cushion with pictures of animals on it for the Prophet to sit on and recline on. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying the makers would be punished on the Day of Resurrection when God would inquire them to bring their creations to life. The Hadith also reports that the Prophet said that the angels would not enter a firm where there are pictures.

Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:
Upon the Prophet's arrival from a military trek, a curtain covering Aisha's store-room was raised past the bravado wind, uncovering her dolls. Among them, the Prophet saw a horse with two wings fabricated of rags and asked his wife what was on the horse. Aisha responded that it was ii wings. He asked: A equus caballus with ii wings? Aisha so asked if the Prophet had non heard that Solomon had horses with wings. The Hadith reports that the Prophet laughed heartily where his molar teeth were seen.

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood ^[43],
Reference (English Book) Book 42, Hadith 4914
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 43, Hadith 160

Narrated Ali ibn Abu Talib:
Safinah AbuAbdurRahman, Ali ibn Abu Talib, and Fatimah invited the Prophet to eat with them. Upon the Prophet's arrival, he turned abroad afterward seeing figural curtains hanging at the end of the firm. Ali followed the Prophet to ask what had turned him back. The Prophet stated that it is unfitting for him or any Prophet to enter a dwelling decorated [with figural imagery].

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood ^[44],
Reference (English Book) Book 27, Hadith 3746
Reference (Standard arabic Volume) Book 28, Hadith twenty

Narrated 'Aisha:
Upon the inflow of the Prophet from a journey, he saw and tore a curtain with pictures his wife had placed over the door of a bedroom. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying those who attempt to make the like of Allah's creations volition receive the severest punishment on the Twenty-four hours of Resurrection.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[45],
Reference (English Book) Vol. seven, Volume 72, Hadith 838
Reference (Arabic Volume) Volume 77, Hadith 6019

To show the superiority of the monotheist organized religion, Muhammad smashed the idols at the Kaaba. He also removed paintings that were blasphemous to Islam, while protecting others (the images of Mary and Jesus) inside the building.^[46] The hadith below emphasizes that aniconism depends non only on what, but also on how things are depicted.

Narrated Ibn Abbas:
The Prophet refused to enter the Ka'ba with idols in it and ordered they be removed. Pictures of Abraham and Ishmael holding arrows of divination were carried out and the Prophet stated, "May Allah ruin the infidels for the false portrayal of the acts of Abraham and Ishmael. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said "Allahu Akbar" inside all directions of the Ka'ba and left without prayer therein.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[47],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 5, Book 59, Hadith 584
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 64, Hadith 4333

Muslim b. Subaih reported being in a firm with Masriuq which had portrayals of Mary. Masriuq had heard Abdullah b, Mas'ud stating that the Prophet had said the most grievously tormented people on the Day of Resurrection would be the painters of pictures. Afterwards this message was read before Nasr b. 'Ali al-Jahdhami and other narrators, the terminal one beingness Ibn Sa'id b Abl at Hasan, one person asked for a religious verdict for 1 like himself who paints pictures. Ibn 'Abbas narrated to the person the Prophet'south sayings in which all painters who make pictures would be punished in the fire of Hell and the soul volition be breathed in every picture prepared by him. Only pictures of paintings of copse and lifeless things should be allowed.

Although pagans in Muhammad's times also worshiped trees and stones, Muhammad opposed only images of animated beings — humans and animals —, every bit reported past the hadith. Afterward, geometrical decoration became a sophisticated art form in Islam.

Narrated Said bin Abu Al-Hasan:
Said bin Abu Al-Hasan narrates a conversation betwixt a panicked homo who makes his living by making pictures with Ibn 'Abbas. Ibn 'Abbas relays the message heard from the Prophet that whoever makes a picture will exist endlessly punished past Allah until he is able to put life into it - though he alleged that would never be possible. The Hadith reports Ibn 'Abbas further advised the panicked man to brand pictures of trees and any other inanimate objects.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[49],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 3, Book 34, Hadith 428
Reference (Arabic Book) Volume 34, Hadith 172

A'isha reported: The Prophet's wife describes owning a curtain with bird portraits. The Prophet asked for the curtain to exist inverse, for when he entered the room information technology brought to him pleasures of worldly life. Aisha describes also having worn sheets with silk badges, which the Prophet did non control to be torn.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim ^[fifty],
Reference (English Book) Volume 24, Hadith 5255
Reference (Arabic Volume) Volume 38, Hadith 5643

Aisha describes the Prophet tearing a pall with portraits on it as presently as he saw it. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said the most grievous torment from the Hand of Allah on the Day of Resurrection would exist for those who imitate (Allah) in the act of His creation. The torn pieces were made into cushions.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim ^[51],
Reference (English Book) Volume 24, Hadith 5261
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 38, Hadith 5650

Muhammad also warned his followers of dying amidst people that congenital places of worship at graves and placed pictures in it (i.e. Christians).

Narrated 'Aisha:
When the Prophet became ill, amongst his wives there was talk of a church in Federal democratic republic of ethiopia with descriptions of its beauty and pictures information technology contained. The Hadith reports the Prophet saying the creators are the worst creatures in the sight of Allah for they are the people who, upon the death of a pious human being amongst them, make a place of worship at his grave and create pictures in it.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[52],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 2, Volume 23, Hadith 425
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 23, Hadith 425

Muhammad made it very clear that angels do not like pictures.

Narrated Abu Talha:
The Prophet said that the angels do non enter houses where there are pictures. The sub-narrator Busr describes having visited Zaid who became sick, so witnessing a mantle hung at his door with a picture on information technology that he had spoken about two days prior to becoming ill.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[53],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 841
Reference (Arabic Book) Volume 77, Hadith 6023

Narrated Salim'south father:
Upon Gabriel'due south delay to visit the Prophet, he stated that they do not enter a place in which there is a film or a dog

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari ^[54],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 843
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6026

See also [edit]

• Aniconism in Christianity
• Aniconism in Judaism
• Taghut
• Censorship past religion
• Censorship in Islamic societies
• Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia
• Devastation of cultural heritage by ISIL
• Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• Yazid II, an Umayyad caliph who issued an iconoclastic edict in 721 CE
• Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam#Image veneration

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford Academy Printing. pp. 14–15.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Figural Representation in Islamic Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art.
3. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab Earth since the Center Ages. Germany: Campus Verlag. p. 42.
4. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab Globe since the Heart Ages. Frg: Campus Verlag. pp. 55–60.
5. ^ Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Printing. pp. 14–xv. ISBN9780199794133.
6. ^ Quran 5:87–92, 21:51–52
7. ^ Titus Burckhardt (1 October 1987). Mirror of the intellect: essays on traditional science & sacred art. SUNY Press. p. 223. ISBN978-0-88706-684-9 . Retrieved 12 December 2011.
8. ^ Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. The Praiseworthy 1 : the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic texts and images. Bloomington, Indiana, U.s.. ISBN 978-0-253-02526-5. OCLC 1083783078.
9. ^ Allen, Terry, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", Palm Tree BooksArchived March three, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
10. ^ Educational Site: Archaeological Sites: Qusayr `Amra Archived 2016-08-26 at the Wayback Machine
11. ^ Hoffman, Eva R. (2008-03-22). "Between E and West: The Wall Paintings of Samarra and the Construction of Abbasid Princely Culture". Muqarnas Online. 25 (i): 107–132. doi:10.1163/22118993_02501005. ISSN 0732-2992.
12. ^ Reza Abbasi Museum Archived September 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
13. ^ "Portraits of the Sultans," Topkapi Palace Museum Archived November 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
14. ^ Dickson, Martin (1958). Sháh Tahmásb and the Úzbeks (the duel for Khurásán with ʻUbayd Khán; 930-946/1524-1540). Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton Academy. p. 190.
15. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. S Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 40-47
16. ^ Mack, p. 3 Archived June 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
17. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. S Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Court and Cosmos: The Swell Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 121
18. ^ The image debate : figural representation in Islam and beyond the world. Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. London. ISBN 978-1-909942-34-ix. OCLC 1061820255.
19. ^ Roxburgh, David J. Prefacing the Image: The Writing of Fine art History in Sixteenth-Century Iran. Studies and Sources in Islamic Art and Architecture, 5. 9. Leiden ; Brill, 2001.
20. ^ ^{a b} George, Alain. Paradise or Empire?: On a Paradox of Umayyad Art. Ability, Patronage, and Memory in Early on Islam (2018). Oxford University Press.
21. ^ Boyd, Douglas A. (Winter 1970–71). "Saudi Arabian Television receiver". Journal of Dissemination. xv (1).
22. ^ R. Hrair Dekmejian (1995). Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab Globe. Syracuse University Printing. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-8156-2635-0. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
23. ^ "Saudi Time Bomb?". Frontline PBS.
24. ^ Run across 'Sura' and 'Taswir' in Encyclopaedia of Islam
25. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Saudi arabia: Oil Refinery Archived July 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
26. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Islamic republic of iran: Abadan Refinery, Iahanshahi-Amouzegar Archived July 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
27. ^ David Zucchino "U.South. military, not Iraqis, behind toppling of statue" Honolulu Advertiser, July 5, 2004 Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
28. ^ Jon Lee Anderson, Thomas Dworzak, Taliban, London (United kingdom), Trolley, 2003, ISBN 0-9542648-5-one.
29. ^ Dabashi, Hamid (2011). Shi'ism - A Faith of Protest. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Printing of Harvard University Press. pp. 29–30.
30. ^ Saudi Aramco World : Masterpieces to Become: The Trucks of Pakistan Archived October 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
31. ^ The Rickshaw Arts of Bangladesh Archived October 21, 2009, at the Wayback Motorcar
32. ^ Picture of Golestan e Shohoda cemetery Esfahan -Esfahan, Iran Archived October xviii, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
33. ^ Mashad Martyrs Cemetery at All-time Iran Travel.com Archived Apr 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
34. ^ Photography by Lehnert & Landrock, titled "Mohamed", Tunis, c. 1906. Nicole Canet, Lehnert & Landrock. Photographies orientatlistes 1905-1930. (Paris: Galerie Au Bonheur du Jour, 2004): cover, p. 9. expressionless link Archived May 18, 2006, at the Wayback Machine . Historical context described in (in French) Patricia Briel, letemps.ch, 22 February 2006. Ces étranges portraits de Mahomet jeune ^{[ dead link ]}
35. ^ Chiliad Ayatollah Uzma Sistani, Fiqh & Behavior: Istifa answers, personal website. (accessed 17 February 2006) (in Arabic) ^{[ permanent expressionless link ]} , "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-05-23. Retrieved 2009-04-29 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
36. ^ Gruber, Christiane. "BETWEEN LOGOS ( KALIMA ) AND LIGHT ( NŪR ): REPRESENTATIONS OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD IN ISLAMIC PAINTING." Muqarnas, vol. 26, 2009, pp. 229–262. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27811142. Accessed 12 Nov. 2020.
37. ^ Fetvacı, Emine. Picturing History at the Ottoman Courtroom / Emine Fetvacı. Indiana University Printing, 2014. p.254
38. ^ Robinson, Francis. Periodical of Islamic Studies, vol. iii, no. i, 1992, pp. 100–103. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26196535. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020.
39. ^ ^{a b} FETVACI, EMINE. "THE Album OF AHMED I." Ars Orientalis, vol. 42, 2012, pp. 127–138. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43489770. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020
40. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Hilya (Votive Tablet)." Accessed December 9, 2020. https://world wide web.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/447313.
41. ^ Grabar, Oleg. "An Exhibition of High Ottoman Art." Muqarnas, vol. vi, 1989, pp. 1–11. JSTOR, world wide web.jstor.org/stable/1602275. Accessed xiii November. 2020.
42. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:34:318, 7:62:110
43. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4914
44. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 27:3746
45. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:838
46. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford Academy Press. p. 552. ISBN978-0-19-636033-one . Retrieved 2011-12-08 .
47. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, v:59:584
48. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5272
49. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:34:428
50. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5255
51. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5261
52. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 2:23:425
53. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:841
54. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:843

References [edit]

General [edit]

• Jack Goody, Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality, London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0-631-20526-8.

Islam [edit]

• Oleg Grabar, "Postscriptum", The Germination of Islamic Art, Yale University, 1987 (p209). ISBN 0-300-03969-7
• Terry Allen, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", 5 Essays on Islamic Fine art, Occidental (CA), Solipsist, 1988. ISBN 0-944940-00-v [1]
• Gilbert Beaugé & Jean-François Clément, 50'image dans le monde arabe [The image in the Arab earth], Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1995, ISBN 2-271-05305-6 (in French)
• Rudi Paret, Das islamische Bilderverbot und dice Schia [The Islamic prohibition of images and the Shi'a], Erwin Gräf (ed.), Festschrift Werner Caskel, Leiden, 1968, 224-32. (in German language)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam

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